Microplastics in freshwater systems: A review on occurrence, environmental effects and methods
for microplastics detection,

Water Research,
Volume 137,
2018,
Pages 362-374,
ISSN 0043-1354,

Abstract:

The continuous increase in synthetic plastic production and
poor management in plastic waste have led to a tremendous increase in
the dumping into our aqueous environment. Consequently, microplastics
commonly defined as sizes less than 5 mm are produced and stay in both
seawater and freshwater environment. The presence of microplastics as a
new type of emerging contaminant has become a great issue of concerns
from public and government authorities. The sources of microplastics to
freshwater systems are many with the largest portion from wastewater
treatment plants. The abundance of microplastics varies with the
location, from above 1 million pieces per cubic meter to less than 1
piece in 100 cubic meters. Microplastics can cause several harmful
physical effects on humans and living organisms through such mechanisms
as entanglement and ingestion. The microplastics can act as carriers of
various toxins such as additives from industrial production processes
and persistent contaminants by the sorption in waters. Those toxins may
cause great health problems to humans. A few studies on the fishes
demonstrated that the microplastics and the associated toxins are
bio-accumulated and cause such problems as intestinal damage and change
in metabolic profiles. In studies of microplastics, fresh water is first
sampled by the nets with typical mesh size of 330 μm for collection of
microplastics. After the volume reducing process, the samples will then
go through the purification process including density separation by such
inorganic salts as sodium chloride and digestion process by oxidizing
agents or enzymes. The sequence of these two processes (namely
purification and digestion) is dependent on the sample type. The
purified samples can be studied by several analytical methods. The
commonly used methods for the qualification studies are FTIR
spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, pyrolysis-GC/MS, and liquid
chromatography. A tagging method can be used in the quantification
study. Our literature study finds that there is still no universal
accepted quantification and qualification tools of microplastics in
fresh waters. More work is anticipated so as to obtain accurate
information on microplastics in freshwater, which can then be used for
the better assessment of the environmental risk.

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1j__KAjYyC0c42WZCTKNgoHAHud3KJhvE
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2017.12.056.(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135417310515)

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Microplastics: No Small Problem for Filter-Feeding Megafauna

Trends in Ecology & Evolution , Volume 33 , Issue 4 , 227 – 232
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2018.01.005

Microplastic pollution can impact filter-feeding marine megafauna,
namely mobulid rays, filter-feeding sharks, and baleen whales. Emerging
research on these flagship species highlights potential exposure to
microplastic contamination and plastic-associated toxins. Research and
its wide communication are needed to understand the magnitude of the
issue and improve marine stewardship.

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1xQP9E5W262U0MeuZBjaJGKm09IxTQR1c

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Spatial and temporal distribution of microplastics in water and sediments of a freshwater system (Antuã
River, Portugal),

Science of The Total Environment, Volume 633, 15
August 2018, Pages 1549-1559, ISSN 0048-9697,

Abstract:

Microplastics (particles with a size < 5 mm), one of the most emerging
aquatic pollutants, are of particular concern since they can reach high
densities and interact with biotic and abiotic environment. The
occurrence of microplastics in freshwater systems is less understood
than in marine environment. Hence, the present study aims to provide new
insights into microplastics abundances and distribution in Antuã River
(Portugal) by applying the isolation method of wet peroxide oxidation
with addition of zinc chloride to water and sediment samples collected
in March and October 2016, in three sampling sites. The abundance of
microplastics in water ranged from 5 to 8.3 mg m−3 or 58–193 items m−3
in March and from 5.8–51.7 mg m−3 or 71–1265 items m−3 in October. In
sediments, the abundance ranged from 13.5–52.7 mg kg−1 or 100–629 items
kg−1 in March and from 2.6–71.4 mg kg−1 or 18–514 items kg−1 in October.
The water and sediment samples with the greatest abundances were from
São João da Madeira and Aguincheira, respectively. Spatio-temporal
distribution showed different pattern according to methodological
approaches, seasonal and hydrodynamic conditions and the proximity to
urban/industry areas. Analysis of plastics by Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy underline polyethylene and polypropylene as the most common
polymer types identified in this work. The low medium high oxidation
ratio was 56:22:22 (%) in March and 61:31:8 (%) in October. Foams and
fibers were the most abundant type in São João da Madeira, while fibers
and fragments were the most abundant in Aguincheira and Estarreja in
water and sediment samples, respectively. This study emphasizes the
importance of rivers as carriage systems of microplastics. Further
studies should be performed to identify point sources in order to
mitigate the microplastics contamination in aquatic systems.

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1nH49vUagp8VOyd9POU59LpI_a_WKpxsc
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.233.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718309926)

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Lost but can’t be neglected: Huge quantities of small microplastics hide in the South China Sea,

Science of The Total Environment, Volume 633, 15
August 2018, Pages 1206-1216, ISSN 0048-9697,

Abstract:

Large quantities of microplastics with small particle sizes were found
in the South China Sea (SCS). The abundances of microplastics in
seawater were 0.045 ± 0.093and 2569 ± 1770 particles/m3 according to the
bongo net and pumping sampling methods, respectively. Smaller-size
fractions (size < 0.3 mm) contributed 92% of the number of microplastics
to the total load. Continental slope is the largest reservoir of
microplastics with an inventory of 295 tons. 21 polymer types were found
in the samples using the micro Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
(FTIR), among which alkyds (22.5%) and polycaprolactone (PCL) (20.9%)
accounted for almost half of the total polymer content. Lighter plastics
would not only concentrate upon the coastal area, being more likely to
drift further into open seas with ocean currents. The distribution
characteristics showed that it was mainly controlled by terrestrial
input of the Pearl River. This study, as the first report from SCS on
microplastics in water for its distribution and influence factors,
provided impetus for further research on the transportation fate and the
behavior of this emerging pollutant from coastal zone to the open
oceans.

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1Optkv-LRAILdqPJ48-dE9f_mHc4TXMhL
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.197.(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718309562)

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Microplastics in surface waters of Dongting Lake and Hong Lake, China,

Science of The Total Environment,
Volume 633,
2018,
Pages 539-545,
ISSN 0048-9697,

Abstract:

Microplastics pollution is an environmental issue of
increasing concern. Much work has been done on the microplastics
pollution in the marine environments. Although freshwaters are potential
sources and transport pathways of plastic debris to the oceans, there is
a lack of knowledge regarding the presence of microplastics in
freshwater systems, especially in China, the world’s largest producer of
plastics. This study investigated the occurrence and properties of
microplastics in surface waters of two important lakes in the middle
reaches of the Yangtze River. The concentration ranges of microplastics
in Dongting Lake and Hong Lake were 900–2800 and 1250–4650n/m3,
respectively. Fiber was the dominant shape. Colored items occupied the
majority. Particles with a size of <330μm comprised >20% of total
microplastics collected in both lakes. Most of the selected particles
were identified as plastics, with polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene
(PP) being the major components. This study can provide valuable
reference for better understanding the microplastics pollution in inland
freshwater ecosystems.

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1ktnqBMVIrr6nBH0Lis6vUtsav4Jy1g6c
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.211.(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718309707)

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Microplastic ingestion by Daphnia magna and its enhancement on algal growth,

Science of The Total Environment,
Volume 633,
2018,
Pages 500-507,
ISSN 0048-9697,

Abstract:

The rapid increase in plastic use over the last few decades
has resulted in plastic pollution in freshwater and marine ecosystems.
However, more attention has been paid to plastic pollution in marine
ecosystems than to freshwater ecosystems. This research determined
microplastic ingestion by Daphnia magna and the potential effect of
microplastics on the organism’s survival and reproduction. The study
also examined the potential of microplastics to enhance algal growth in
support of understanding effects of microplastic ingestion on the
organism. When exposed to 25, 50, and 100mg/L fluorescent green
polyethylene microbeads at size of 63–75μm, D. magna ingested
significant amount of plastic microbeads. The number of ingested beads
increased with increasing particle concentration and exposure time.
However, no significant effect on survival and reproduction was observed
although the gut of D. magna was filled with plastic microbeads. In the
algal experiment, Raphidocelis subcapitata grew more in the exposure
media with the present of plastic microbeads than without plastic
microbeads. This result suggests that plastic microbeads could serve as
substrates for R. subcapitata to grow. Raphidocelis subcapitata then
could be transferred to the organism’s gut and provided energy for
survival and reproduction. Results of the present study add to the
literature of microplastic ingestion by aquatic organisms. Caution
should be taken when interpreting hazards of microplastics based on
ingestion, such as the measurement unit and the presence of algae in the
environment.

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1nTftG0NvCpA2OD3R-RZviFxCdxewU6Bd
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.176.(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969718309355)

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Organic fertilizer as a vehicle for the entry of microplastic into the environment

Science Advances  04 Apr 2018:
Vol. 4, no. 4, eaap8060
DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aap8060

Abstract:

The contamination of the environment with microplastic, defined as
particles smaller than 5 mm, has emerged as a global challenge because
it may pose risks to biota and public health. Current research focuses
predominantly on aquatic systems, whereas comparatively little is known
regarding the sources, pathways, and possible accumulation of plastic
particles in terrestrial ecosystems. We investigated the potential of
organic fertilizers from biowaste fermentation and composting as an
entry path for microplastic particles into the environment. Particles
were classified by size and identified by attenuated total
reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. All fertilizer
samples from plants converting biowaste contained plastic particles, but
amounts differed significantly with substrate pretreatment, plant, and
waste (for example, household versus commerce) type. In contrast,
digestates from agricultural energy crop digesters tested for comparison
contained only isolated particles, if any. Among the most abundant
synthetic polymers observed were those used for common consumer
products. Our results indicate that depending on pretreatment, organic
fertilizers from biowaste fermentation and composting, as applied in
agriculture and gardening worldwide, are a neglected source of
microplastic in the environment.

http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/4/eaap8060.full.pdf

https://drive.google.com/open?id=14h9LP_WRXvQ4KpiJF4-NulGJPRj0bObv
http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/4/eaap8060

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Summary:

Research on microplastic pollution (small particles of plastic <5 mm in
size) has long focused on their largest sink: the ocean. More recently,
however, researchers have expanded their focus to include freshwater and
terrestrial environments. This is a welcome development, given that an
estimated 80% of microplastic pollution in the ocean comes from land (1)
and that rivers are one of the dominant pathways for microplastics to
reach the oceans (2). Like other persistent pollutants, such as
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), microplastics are now recognized as
being distributed across the globe. Detailed understanding of the fate
and impacts of this ubiquitous environmental contaminant will thus
require a concerted effort among scientists with expertise beyond the
marine sciences.

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/360/6384/28.full.pdf

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1wZ_Qy4ZqLwDh4m5i4u_sLij4G-toL-jB
http://science.sciencemag.org/content/360/6384/28

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Low levels of microplastics (MP) in wild mussels indicate that MP ingestion by humans is minimal compared to exposure via household fibres fallout during a meal,
Environmental Pollution,
Volume 237,
2018,
Pages 675-684,
ISSN 0269-7491,

Abstract:

Microplastics (MPs) are the most numerous debris reported in
marine environments and assessment of the amounts of MPs that accumulate
in wild organisms is necessary for risk assessment. Our objective was to
assess MP contamination in mussels collected around the coast of
Scotland (UK) to identify characteristics of MPs and to evaluate risk of
human exposure to MPs via ingestion of mussels. We deployed caged
mussels (Mytilus edulis) in an urbanised estuary (Edinburgh, UK) to
assess seasonal changes in plastic pollution, and collected mussels
(Mytilus spp and subtidal Modiolus modiolus) from eight sampling
stations around Scotland to enumerate MP types at different locations.
We determined the potential exposure of humans to household dust fibres
during a meal to compare with amounts of MPs present in edible mussels.
The mean number of MPs in M. modiolus was 0.086 ± 0.031 (SE, n = 6)/g ww
(3.5 ± 1.29 (SE) per mussel). In Mytilus spp, the mean number of MPs/g
ww was 3.0 ± 0.9 (SE, n = 36) (3.2 ± 0.52 (SE) per mussel), but weight
dependent. The visual accuracy of plastic fibres identification was
estimated to be between 48 and 50%, using Nile Red staining and FT-IR
methodologies, respectively, halving the observed amounts of MPs in wild
mussels. We observed an allometric relationship between the number of
MPs and the mussels wet weight. Our predictions of MPs ingestion by
humans via consumption of mussels is 123 MP particles/y/capita in the UK
and can go up to 4620 particles/y/capita in countries with a higher
shellfish consumption. By comparison, the risk of plastic ingestion via
mussel consumption is minimal when compared to fibre exposure during a
meal via dust fallout in a household (13,731–68,415 particles/Y/capita).

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1i21GXMPUXEKWR_U1Cd7Kxcm0Rvosstkr
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.069.

(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749117344445)

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The power of environmental norms: marine plastic pollution and the politics of microbeads,
Environmental Politics, DOI:
10.1080/09644016.2018.1449090

ABSTRACT:

Emerging environmental norms gain strength and diffuse more quickly when
scientific evidence of harm is consolidating, when activism is
intensifying, and when political and corporate resistance is relatively
weak. The anti-microbead norm – that plastic microbeads should be
removed from personal care products – has been gaining global influence
since 2012; witness the upsurge in anti-microbead activism, public
concern, voluntary corporate phasedowns and governmental bans. By 2018,
the world was on track to eliminate microbeads from ‘rinse-off’ products
within a decade, reducing microplastics flowing into oceans by 1–2%.
This confirms the power of environmental norms, but how and why this
phaseout is occurring – unequally across jurisdictions, with firms
creating loopholes, missing deadlines and limiting the scope of reforms
– also reveals innate weaknesses of bottom-up, ad hoc norm diffusion as
a way of improving marine governance. These weaknesses are heightened
when economic stakes are high, solutions are complex and costly,
authority is fragmented across jurisdictions and corporate resistance is
strong.

https://drive.google.com/open?id=1LIF8aDtH5IjejTsWtIhcSi0Li5cGEOs1
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09644016.2018.1449090

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